STDS Questions & Answers

December 21, 2009 by admin · Comments Off 

A little irregular discharge. Is this mundane?Hi. First off, I have never had any sort of STD and I know to obtain tested often. I work at a physician’s office and would like to expect that I am pretty informed and up to date on what’s going on with sexual health. This, however, is a question I would a bit…A manly friend of mine have cold sores practical his mouth?I meant herpes simplex* – Oral herpes do not stay constantly they come around 2-3 times a year if someone has them they are spread from skin to skin friction contact and are a blister that after 24hrs bursts and turns in to a crusty scab so i…A press almost hiv/aids?Is a common signs that you have the hiv/aids is an abnormal pap smear contained by women I know that this can be many things but can it also be a signs of hiv/aids even when no symptoms are present. – Pap smears check for abnormal cells of the cervix, some also testing for HPV (Human…A press almost STD’s?I am worried that, upon having very intimate sex with my couch and pillow,that i may own somehow retracted an STD. Can somebody please help me decide in whether or not it is possible for this to take place. Aside from my couch, a barbie doll, and a those things you by that you blow up and…A press in the order of a condom near a hole?Okay, let’s say if you’re a guy who have no HIV at all but your girlfriend do hold HIV right? both of you want to make a baby together so bad contained by a old fashioned way. You use a condom with a hole so sperms can shift through the…A query for empire next to genital herpes?I just met a great guy, the only drawback is that he has Genital Herpes and I don’t, Is it possible for me never to grasp if we use a condom, or I will get it automatically. – it is posible if he wares a condom, but condoms are safe for the…A query going on for genital wart?Is it possible to get Genital Warts around your anus and no where else even tho you’ve never have anal sex? – yes! it is possible ! because during sex body fluids can get on your anus! ou want to remove warts then you should know that you can remove genital wart by…A serious give somebody the third degree almost HIV and pregnancy?I have a question about HIV and pregnancy, which is serious even if it doesn’t nouns it. if there was a massive queue in a public toilet, and someone beside HIV masturbated on the toilet seat. Wipe up, but left traces of his semen on the toilet seat. Flushed go…A sound out concerning stds and such?my girlfriend and i, have decided we’d like to grip in sexual intercourse. neither of us have before, neither of us enjoy an std, nor does anyone in our family. if we stay monogamous are we at risk of contracting one? if so how? – You should still get tested up to…A strange but serious give somebody the third degree in the region of felatio?If I were to consume the semen of a male who frequently smokes marijuana, is it possible that this could lead to small traces of thc within my system if I were to undergo a drug test? I enjoy never smoked marijuana before. I know…A stripper put a lollipop within her vagina and later surrounded by my mouth. I have a small swelling contained by my mouth. Can I procure HIV?A couple of weeks ago, I went to Vegas for a bachelor party for a good friend. One hours of darkness the best man had two strippers come to our room. One of the…A terrifically serious interrogate and i requirement serious answers?Last night i had unprotected sex with a girl who i next found out has genital herpies. Ofcourse she didnt tell me till after we had sex and i didnt use a condom because of the BC, but i know i still should own used one its my fault. Ayways, how do…A VD sound out??Okay so if I have anal warts and my cousin gets some of me from down and he gets Genital Warts, when my sister gives him oral will she procure the warts in her mouth? o I am going to have to stop kissing my sis on the mouth. – save kissing!! Source(s): http://www.mybeautynhealth.com …A virgin..is it possible i hold genital wart?ive never had sex or had oral sex or given oral sex, is there any means of access that i could have this particular disease. i sometimes have breakouts of zits above my genital nouns and looks like there are Genital Warts on the scrotum of my penis? Please assist – Genital…A yellowish-greenish discharge is coming out of my penis when its not easier said than done. Help?!?A yellowish-greenish discharge is coming out of my penis when its not hard. it happened after i masturbated two weeks ago. now theirs this few discharge when i rouse look at my briefs, an itch below the tip of my cock, and a cold…A.I.D.S Help and Info VERY IMPORTANT.?Hey my dad and i had a debate about aids. He told me that if a guy has sex beside a guy they will get aids. I said that isnt true. Who is right me or my dad. – If a man that have AIDS has sex with other men, sure as heck they…Abnoral HPV cell after birth?when i got pregnant they gave me my normal pap smear. it come back completely normal.i had my little one girl in july. then for my 6 week check up they did another pap smear, which they called me roughly 2 weeks later and told me that my pap smear came back impressive and they believe…Abnormal cell on my cervix am I going to want a Hysterectomy?!?Please help I’m 20 years old, and I’m having a reoccurrence of unexpected cells on my cervix. The culprit is the HPV virus. I’m so nervous that I caught more strains because I had sex near 3 guys, but it was with a condom all 3 times. The doctors…Abnormal down-there secretion?my boyfirend inserted his finger inside of me. after that mucus came out tinged with blood. it came out that means of access for a few days. now i am expecting my period, and what i got in a minute is still brown spots. what is this? I’m still a virgin, though, and we never had intercourse.Abnormal Pap Smear – PLEASE READ&ANSWER?I’m 21, went and got my first pap smear & exam back surrounded by March. octor finally got ahold of me two days ago and said that my smear came back impressive and it was possible it was due to HPV and she was making me an appointment beside a specialist to get some kind…Abnormal pap smear, 7mos pregnant? HELP!?Ok, so when I was 2mos pregnant I had my first COMPLETE prenatal exam. I also had a Yeast Infection that same daytime. They did all the normal stuff, STD test, blood examination, HIV, pap smear, and everything else. The STD and HIV came back neg, blood tests come back normal, but…Abortion complications and ex girlfriend?Last May My girlfriend fell pregnant and we decided that it was not the right tome for us to have children…We be using contraception at the time which failed. After a long discusion we decided that a termination was the best likelihood. Since then the partnership broke down and I ended it in January which she…About aids and how it spreads?does aids spread if the female fluid sticks to the penis? – Yes.. That’s how it spreads with the exchange of bodily fluids just like that. Also it can be spread if they enjoy a sore in their mouth and you kiss them and have a sore, or you receive oral sex. Also through…About contracting herpes?so my sister has been diagnosed with herpes lately. and im not ashamed of her or anything. nor do i think of her differently. but i was wondering if there be anyway that she could give it to me or my other sister. obviously we wouldnt be ‘doing’ anything together. what i mean is near a way like…About genital wart or other sdis?could some one please tell me about these things i have have them i got one and now they spread everywere now they are away … presently my boyfriend has them and we have unprotected sex. could i get them up inside me and could they label me infertile ttc for bout a year an…About herpes and cold sores?are herpes and cold sores the same thing? – herpes and cold sores are the same but cold sores are less severe. cold sores is usually one large sore while herpes is multiple sores. both can be cured. – Cold sores are caused by oral herpes, (not the genital type) so technically they are like…About HIV infection I am really worried?I have done unprotected sex with 3 girls ! Once with a girl who be virgin (4 years ago) ! She bleeded on my penis ! Then with another girl (4 months ago) and then with a third one (1 month ago) ! I checked nearby medical report and all three of them were…About HIV symptoms !!?how much time primary HIV symptoms takes to go away ? And whether they can come back again ? – The initial symptoms may last from 1 hours of daylight to 1 month. You may be in seroconversion. This is the process’s when the virus replicates fastest.Generally this is because of another infection or injury. Source(s):…About HIV/AIDS risks?i am a virgin so too my girlfriend here a possibility to have STD(sexually transmitted diseases approaching AIDS)? is it necessary to use protection like condom or can i do without it. gratefulness use a condom – Anyone of any age, race, sex or sexual orientation can be infected with HIV, but you’re at greatest…About hpv, std… please back ! i stipulation serious answers !?i’m scared. i have been diagnosed beside human papillomavirus just today. so worried and confused, i can’t think straight. i had sex for the first time in my life span last november 2008, i was 27. i thought it’s time for me to start doing it since i’m already old. More STDS questions please visit : DiseasesFAQ.com

Don’t Turn a Blind Eye to Std

December 21, 2009 by admin · Comments Off 

If you are sexually active, you must be aware of the wide range of STDs that can affect you. take a look at std guide we have compiled below and explore everything you need to know. There is a wide variety of sexually transmitted infections and sexually transmitted diseases, so take a look at the news, we have given below and learn how to protect yourself against them. Sexually transmitted diseases or sexually transmitted infections are taken through many types of sexual contact, including anal penetration, oral and vaginal sex. There are many sexually transmitted diseases and sexually transmitted infections, although we have provided information on some key below. If you need additional advice, please contact a doctor or nurse in sexual health. Genital Warts are a widespread sexually transmitted infections. they are caused by the virus detection of HPV, which can be transmitted during sexual intercourse with. However, not everyone who suffers from the virus develops Genital Warts. A number of people suffering from discovering the virus will be allowed in the body over time. it is rare for Genital Warts to be the cause of any long-term health problems. HIV is the most serious std. It attacks the body’s immune system, which usually defends the body against infection and disease. HIV infects cells that are called CD4 cells and are responsible for the fight against disease and infection. after being infected by HIV, HIV destroys CD4 cells. what makes someone who is infected with HIV with a high risk of contracting a serious infection or diseases, including cancer. For more help and support on sexually transmitted diseases and sexually transmitted infections, go see your sexual health centre. they will be able to test yourself, and also offer treatment. You can also try pr your visit for advice. do not be nervousabout pr your visit, they often sensitive issues. The only way to be 100% sure of MTS and sexually transmitted infections is refraining from any sexual activity. despite this, if you are sexually active, you can protect your sexual health by having regular testing and std sti, especially if you get a new sexual partner. it goes without saying that condoms are a must. They protect you against pregnancy, and a wide range of MTS and sexually transmitted infections.

A Womanâ??s Guide to Vaginitis

December 21, 2009 by admin · Comments Off 

Vaginitis is a condition in which there is an inflammation of the vagina. It is also characterized by discharge, odor, irritation, and itching. There are many agents that can cause vaginitis. These are bacteria, yeast, chemicals, and even clothing. Vaginitis can also be a sexually transmitted disease and it is influenced by many factors like health, personal hygiene, medications, hormones, health of the sexual partner, and disturbance of the genitalia. The Many Types of Vaginitis and Their Treatments It is important to know the different types of vaginitis so that you can understand the right treatment. They come from different causes and they often have different symptoms. More than one type of vaginitis can occur at the same time with or without the presence of the symptoms and you must take note to identify them correctly.  * Candida or Yeast Infection. Caused by the fungus Candida, they normally live in the vagina but only in small numbers. The most common symptom is the thick, white vaginal discharge that is usually odorless and watery, and causes redness and itchiness in the vulva and vagina over time. The treatment will be determined by the physician based on the womanâ??s overall health and medical history. It may include antifungal vaginal creams, vaginal tablets, and antibiotics.* Bacterial vaginosis. This is the most common type of vaginitis, and it is caused by a bacteria. Symptoms may include a milky thin discharge and a fishy odor that may become noticeable during intercourse. Treating it will be as simple as taking in oral antibiotics.* Trichomoniasis vaginitis. This is caused by a parasite and it can be easily transmitted through sexual intercourse. Symptoms include a greenish yellow discharge with a musty smell and itching around the vagina. It also causes discomfort on the lower abdomen and there is a burning sensation when a woman urinates. Also, women with this infection experience pain during sexual intercourse. Treatment requires only oral antibiotics but both partners need to take medication in order to avoid recurring infection.* Chlamydia vaginitis. This is the most common sexually transmitted disease in the United States and it often goes undiagnosed. If this infection is left untreated, it will result in  pelvic inflammatory disease. This is caused by a bacterium and different strains of it exist. Symptoms include a light bleeding with pain in the lower abdomen. Women with this infection often have pus in their urine and there is a redness and swelling in the urethra and labia. Antibiotics are used to treat this infection.* Viral vaginitis. This is often the most common cause of vaginitis. One type that causes this and other sexually related diseases is the human papillomavirus or HPV. Symptoms include the presence of warts in the genitalia and this is simply detected by a Pap test. There is a vaccine widely used in treating and preventing this infection.* Noninfectious vaginitis. This refers to vaginal irritation without an infection. It is usually caused by an allergic reaction from any chemical that is applied to the genitals. Symptoms include itching, burning, and even pelvic pain. Treating this vaginal infection includes applying estrogen creams and oral tablets. This restores lubrication and decrease the soreness and irritation of the genitals.

A Womanâ??s Guide to Vaginitis

December 21, 2009 by admin · Comments Off 

Vaginitis is a condition in which there is an inflammation of the vagina. It is also characterized by discharge, odor, irritation, and itching. There are many agents that can cause vaginitis. These are bacteria, yeast, chemicals, and even clothing. Vaginitis can also be a sexually transmitted disease and it is influenced by many factors like health, personal hygiene, medications, hormones, health of the sexual partner, and disturbance of the genitalia. The Many Types of Vaginitis and Their Treatments It is important to know the different types of vaginitis so that you can understand the right treatment. They come from different causes and they often have different symptoms. More than one type of vaginitis can occur at the same time with or without the presence of the symptoms and you must take note to identify them correctly.  * Candida or Yeast Infection. Caused by the fungus Candida, they normally live in the vagina but only in small numbers. The most common symptom is the thick, white vaginal discharge that is usually odorless and watery, and causes redness and itchiness in the vulva and vagina over time. The treatment will be determined by the physician based on the womanâ??s overall health and medical history. It may include antifungal vaginal creams, vaginal tablets, and antibiotics.* Bacterial vaginosis. This is the most common type of vaginitis, and it is caused by a bacteria. Symptoms may include a milky thin discharge and a fishy odor that may become noticeable during intercourse. Treating it will be as simple as taking in oral antibiotics.* Trichomoniasis vaginitis. This is caused by a parasite and it can be easily transmitted through sexual intercourse. Symptoms include a greenish yellow discharge with a musty smell and itching around the vagina. It also causes discomfort on the lower abdomen and there is a burning sensation when a woman urinates. Also, women with this infection experience pain during sexual intercourse. Treatment requires only oral antibiotics but both partners need to take medication in order to avoid recurring infection.* Chlamydia vaginitis. This is the most common sexually transmitted disease in the United States and it often goes undiagnosed. If this infection is left untreated, it will result in  pelvic inflammatory disease. This is caused by a bacterium and different strains of it exist. Symptoms include a light bleeding with pain in the lower abdomen. Women with this infection often have pus in their urine and there is a redness and swelling in the urethra and labia. Antibiotics are used to treat this infection.* Viral vaginitis. This is often the most common cause of vaginitis. One type that causes this and other sexually related diseases is the human papillomavirus or HPV. Symptoms include the presence of warts in the genitalia and this is simply detected by a Pap test. There is a vaccine widely used in treating and preventing this infection.* Noninfectious vaginitis. This refers to vaginal irritation without an infection. It is usually caused by an allergic reaction from any chemical that is applied to the genitals. Symptoms include itching, burning, and even pelvic pain. Treating this vaginal infection includes applying estrogen creams and oral tablets. This restores lubrication and decrease the soreness and irritation of the genitals.

Human Papilloma Virus â?? a Review

December 21, 2009 by admin · Comments Off 

HUMAN PAPILLOMA VIRUS â?? A REVIEW

Sameera Mohotti (BSc, MSc, MD(MA))

INTRODUCTION

HPV is one of the most common sexually transmitted viral diseases. It is

estimated that 80% of sexually active adults have been infected with one or more genital HPV types at one point of their life time. The prevalence of HPV is increasing worldwide. Although it is

difficult to estimate the overall prevalence of HPV infection, it is estimated that the prevalence could be as high as 20 million (Revzina 2005). The total health care cost associated with the screening and treatment of cervical cancer in the U.S. is estimated to be $6 billion per year (Koutsky 1997). A US sero prevalence study performed by Revizina et al revealed that the highest prevalence of

HPV is among college students and women attending STD clinics Data from clinics in Australia indicate a prevalence of 4- 13% among STD clinic attendants Following initial infection, HPV establishes latent infection, from which symptomatic recurrences may develop periodically (Revzina 2005),(Armstrong 1986).

The main aim of this review was to evaluate the current literature regarding the types of HPV, symptoms and its pathogenesis.

SPECTRUM OF HPV INFECTION

Over 200 types of HPV have been classified on the basis of their DNA sequence homology. 85 HPV genotypes are well characterized.

HPV can be grouped as high risk HPV and low risk HPV based on their association with cancer and precursor lesions. High risk HPVâ??s have a high oncogenic potentials. This group includes serotypes 16,18,31,33, 34, 35,39,45,51,52,56,58,59,66,68. Low risk HPVâ??s have less oncogenic potentials and usually results in the formation of low grade precancerous lesions. This group includes

serotypes 6, 11, 42, 43, 44. This difference in the capacity to induce malignant transformation is due to the functional difference seen in E6 and E7 proteins of the two groups (Burd 2003; Longworth and Laimins 2004).

Although many HPV infections are sub clinical, symptomatic HPV infection typically results in lesions. Each HPV serotype infects certain parts of the body and responsible for different types of lesions. According to the current classification system (Bethesda system) of HPV lesions, there are three main groups. They are anoGenital Warts, low grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (cervical / anal intraepithelial neoplasia and mild dysplasia) and high grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (moderate and severe dysplasia).Cervical/anal/vulvar/penile carcinomas usually develop from high grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (University 2001).

Genital Warts (proliferative foci of epithelial keratinocytes infected with HPV) appear as bumps or abnormal growths in the genital area. This is one of the commonest clinically recognized disease manifestations of genital HPV. These are usually found in vulva, urethra, anus, and vagina and on the cervix. Warts are extremely contagious and they occasionally lead to cancer of the cervix in

women or cancer of the penis in men (Lacey 2005).

The presence of abnormal cells on the surface of the skin is called dysplasia.

Dysplasia is not a cancer and mild dysplasia is likely to self resolve. However, mild, moderate and severe dysplasia could be progressed in to a cancer, if not detected and treated at its early stage. Studies indicate that even adolescents with low grade squamous intraepithelial lesions and high grade squamous intraepithelial lesions are also at high risk for progression to high-grade cervical abnormalities (Wright, Pinto et al. 2004).

BASIC VIROLOGY

HPV is a nonenveloped, double stranded circular DNA virus with a diameter of 5.5 nm. The genome is approximately 8 Kb in size and encased in an icosahedral capsid which is composed of 72 capsomeres. Capsid comprises of an outer protein coat which consists of two capsid proteins, L1 (major) and L2 (minor) (Sapp, Volpers et al. 1995).

HPV genome is functionally divided in to 3 regions .They are the upstream regulatory region, early region and the late region. The upstream regulatory region involves in viral replication and also controls the transcription of some sequences in the early region. The early region of the genome encompasses 6 open reading frames (ORFâ??s) named E1, E2, E4, E5, E6 and E7. These encode proteins involved in viral replication, transcription and cellular transformation. E6 and E7 regions are responsible for the oncogenic properties of HPV. The late region encompasses two ORFâ??s and these encode L1 and L2 structural proteins which is necessary for capsid production (Sapp, Volpers et

al. 1995).

PRODUCTIVE HPV INFECTION

HPV gain entry into the host cells through the basal layer of the epithelium. In initial infection HPV is present as an episome. It has been proposed that HPV-6 attaches to the host cells via ?6-intergrin in the epithelium cells; where as, HPV16 and HPV 33 attach to host cells via cell surface heparin sulphate. The papilloma viral gene expressions are linked with the differentiation stages of the epithelium and virus multiplies as it progresses through the natural epithelial cell maturation (Giroglou, Florin et al. 2001).

During viral replication, the E1 gene product (E1 protein) binds to the viral origin of replication and this result in the extra chromosomal replication of the viral genome. The E2 gene product (E2 protein) down-regulates the E6 and E7 regions to allow the normal differentiation process of the cell. The capsid genes L1 and L2 synthesize the capsid protein and envelopes each episomal DNA in a protein capsid. The E4 gene product (E4 protein) is associated with the maturation and release of papilloma virus particles(Burd 2003),(Longworth and Laimins 2004).

The productive viral stage results in flat or papillary lesions. Since the papilloma virus replication goes hand in hand with the epithelial cell differentiations, as the lesions are formed the superficial and intermediate epithelial layers would contain a large amount of viral DNA. The accumulations of viral particles in the superficial epithelial layers provoke the cells to the koilocytosis cytopathic effect. This gives rise to koilocytes, in which the cellular nucleus is displaced to the side with a ‘hollow’ appearance of the cytoplasm. The virus particles are released as dying koilocytes are shed (zur Hausen 1991; Longworth and Laimins 2004).

PATHOGENESIS OF ONCOGENIC HPV

When a person gets infected with high-risk HPV, it may take up to 20 years for the

cancer changes to appear. This persistency of HPV infection is necessary for the malignant transformation of the cells. In HPV associated benign lesions, the HPV DNA is usually located extra chromosomal where as in HPV associated cancers , the HPV DNA is usually found integrated in to host genome. Integration of high risk HPV DNA in to the host cell disrupts the E2 region. This results in the loss of normal E2 down-regulation of E6 and E7 which leads to the up-regulation of the two HPV viral oncogenes; E6 and E7.These E6 and E7 gene products has the ability to destabilize the cell growth regulatory and modify the cellular environment in which it replicates (Jan M. M. Walboomers 1999; Yoshinouchi, Hongo et al. 1999; Burd 2003).

pRB and pRb related proteins are critical components of the cell cycle as they seize the

transcription factor E2F which is necessary for the functions of the cell cycle. When E7 proteins bind to the pRB, pRB-E2F complex gets disrupted and this results in the E2F liberation. This disruption affects the normal functions of the cell. E6 viral gene product, the E6 protein, targets the immunosuppressor protein p53 (low risk HPV typeâ??s bind p53 in decreased affinity). The p53 protein prevents cells from completing the cell cycle and up-regulates genes involved in DNA repair, if it comes across any DNA damage. Another important function of the p53 protein is to instruct a cell with DNA damage to commit suicide. If the p53 function is inactivated then these damaged cells would continue to divide and accumulate mutations which would eventually lead to the formation of a tumor.

When E6 protein binds to p53, E6 associated ubiquitin ligase catalyzes ubiquitin ligase mediated p53 degradation. This destroys the tumor suppressive properties of p53 (Syrjanen 1999; Ha and Califano 2004).

The ability of E6 and E7 gene products to disrupt the cellular p53 and pRB protein functions result in, increase cell proliferation and genomic instability. Eventually the cell accumulates damaged DNA/mutations which may lead to the formation of fully transformed cancerous cells. The low risk HPVâ??s appear to be unable to integrate in to the host genome. But low risk serotypes like HPV 6, 11 may result in chromosomal instability which would lead to the accumulation of mutational events, which in turn may form fully transformed cancerous cells .In addition to the E6 and E7 protein function, methylation of viral DNA, telomere activations, humoral and immunogenic factors also contribute to the cellular transformations (Holowaty, Miller et al. 1999; Burd 2003).

REFERENCES

Armstrong, B. K., O. V. Allen, B. A. Brennan, I. A. Fruzynski, N. H. de Klerk, E. D. Waters, J.

Machin, and M. M. Gollow (1986). “Time trends in prevalence of cervical cytological abnormality in

women attending a sexually transmitted diseases clinic and their relationship to trends in sexual

activity and specific infections.” Br J Cancer 54: 669-75.

Burd, E. M. (2003). “Human Papillomavirus and Cervical Cancer.” Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 16: 1-17.

Burd, E. M. (2003). “Human Papillomavirus and Cervical Cancer.” Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 16(1): 1-17.

Giroglou, T., L. Florin, et al. (2001). “Human Papillomavirus Infection Requires Cell Surface Heparan Sulfate.” J. Virol. 75(3): 1565-1570.

Ha, P. K. and J. A. Califano (2004). “The role of Human Papilloma Virus in oral carcinogenesis.” Crit Rev Oral Biol Med 15(4): 188-196.

Holowaty, P., A. B. Miller, et al. (1999). “Natural History of Dysplasia of the Uterine Cervix.” J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 91(3): 252-258.

Jan M. M. Walboomers, M. V. J., M. Michele Manos, F. Xavier Bosch, J. Alain Kummer, Keerti V. Shah,

Peter J. F. Snijders, Julian Peto, Chris J. L. M. Meijer, Nubia Muñoz, (1999). “Human papillomavirus is a necessary cause of invasive cervical cancer worldwide.” The Journal of Pathology 189(1): 12-19.

Koutsky, P., Laura. (1997). “Epidemiology of Genital Human Papillomavirus Infection.” The American Journal of Medicine 102: 3-8.

Lacey, C. J. N. (2005). “Therapy for genital human papillomavirus-related disease.” Journal of

Clinical Virology Supplement: Human Papillomaviruses 32(Supplement 1): 82-90.

Longworth, M. S. and L. A. Laimins (2004). “Pathogenesis of Human Papillomaviruses in Differentiating Epithelia.” Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 68(2): 362-372.

Revzina, N. V., and R. J. Diclemente (2005). “Prevalence and incidence of human papillomavirus infection in women in the USA: a systematic review.” Int J STD AIDS 16: 528-37.

Sapp, M., C. Volpers, et al. (1995). “Organization of the major and minor capsid proteins in human papillomavirus type 33 virus-like particles.” J Gen Virol 76(9): 2407-2412.

Syrjanen, S. M., and K. J. Syrjanen. (1999). “New concepts on the role of human papillomavirus in cell cycle regulation.” Ann Med 31: 175-187.

University, J. s. H. (2001). “HPV-induced Anal Dysplasia: What Do We Know and What Can We Do About It?” (Online)

Wright, J. D., A. B. Pinto, et al. (2004). “Atypical Squamous Cells of Undetermined Significance in Girls and Women .” Obstet Gynecol 103(4): 632-638.

Yoshinouchi, M., A. Hongo, et al. (1999). “Analysis by Multiplex PCR of the Physical Status of Human Papillomavirus Type 16 DNA in Cervical Cancers.” J. Clin. Microbiol. 37(11): 3514-3517.

zur Hausen, H. (1991). â??Human papillomaviruses in the pathogenesis of anogenital cancer.” Virology

184: 9-13.

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